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... The number of phylotype found in the sample (S) b. The Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H ') were calculated to illustrate the diversity of the community on different instar and the relative importance value in each phylotype in over all the community using the following formula: H' = -Σ pi ln (pi), in which pi is the sample size owned by Phylotype (pi = ni / n) [16] c. The evenness index was determined by the level of community spread of the T-RF community. ...

... The evenness index was determined by the level of community spread of the T-RF community. Evenness (evenness) was calculated using the community of Pielous index (J) as follows: E '= H' / ln (S) S was the total number of T-RF [16] d. The similarity index / similarity pair Sorensen's (Cs) was calculated for each pair of the community with the following formula: Cs = 2J / (a + b), in which J was the number of T-RF / phylotype of every compared community, a and b are the total number of each T-RF / phylotype each community, the index value in range of 0-1, the value of 0 means no phylotype overlapping between communities, the value of 1 is contained exactly the same phylotype found in both communities. ...

... This shows that the control of the BAL community in the cecum tends to be more diverse than the community in the ileum. This is based on the Shannon index value between 1.0 and 6.0 (Stiling, 1996). The treatment with feeding of fermented Chrysonilia crassa in the ileum showed the diversity index of 0.66, while in the cecum 0:48. ...

The Lactid Acid Bakteria (LAB) are microflora in the digestive tract which has positive roles in poultry's health. One of the factors diversity of LAB in the gatrointestinal tract are influenced by feeding factor. The purpose of this study was to analyze the LAB diversity in ileum and coecum after being fed on fermented Chrysonilia crassa molecularly. LAB species diversity was analysed to provide a baseline profile of the microbial community database on the ileum and coecum digestive tract of broiler chicken of control (commercial feed) and treatment (feed with Chrysonilia crassa fermentation) by the method of Terminal Restriction Fragment Lenght Polymorphism The calculated values werethe number of phylotypes, relative abundace, Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H'), evennes index (E'), and similarity. Group of LAB detected in the control group were Lactobacillus delbrueckii (180 bp), Lactobacillus sp. (187 bp), Lactobacillus plantarum (572 bp), uncultured bacterium (87 bp) and unidentified (50 bp, 582bp). The result of this study showed that by feeding on the fermented Chrysonilia crassa feed had resulted in the decreasing of LAB diversity, i.e. ileum (0.66), coecum (0.48) compared with commercial feed (control) that was ileum (0.84), coecum (1.05).

... However, on vegetated landscapes, plants are the first interceptors of precipitation and the first potential source of DOM to the forest floor and the downstream aquatic carbon cycle ( Fig. 8.1). Although vegetated ecosystems consist of a diverse array of plant types, few studies report DOM in net precipitation beneath the canopies of any (2018) NPP 1600-2200 0.5-2.4% Stiling (1996) Soil respiration (SR) 1092 0.9-3.5% Raich and Schlesinger (1992) Heterotrophic SR 764.4 1.3-5.0% Raich and Schlesinger (1992) (2018) NPP 1200-1300 0.5-3.3% ...

... Raich and Schlesinger (1992) (2018) NPP 1200-1300 0.5-3.3% Stiling (1996) Soil respiration (SR) 662 1.1-6.0% Raich and Schlesinger (1992) Heterotrophic SR 463.4 1.5-8.6% ...

... Raich and Schlesinger (1992) Heterotrophic SR 463.4 1.5-8.6% Raich and Schlesinger (1992) Litter leachate 5-20 36-800% Park and Matzner (2003) Organic Stiling (1996) Soil respiration (SR) 322 0.6-1.5% Raich and Schlesinger (1992) Heterotrophic SR 225.4 0.8-2.1% Raich and Schlesinger (1992) Litter leachate 20-48 4-24% Koprivnjak and Moore (1992) Organic soil horizons 22-60 3-22% Koprivnjak and Moore (1992) Mineral soil horizons 12-22 9-40% Koprivnjak and Moore (1992) Streams (first order) 3-7 2 7 -160% Eckhardt and Moore (1990) other plant besides trees (Gray 1997;Koprivnjak and Moore 1992). The earliest trees appear in the fossil record approximately 385 million years ago (Stein et al. 2007), since when they have fundamentally altered terrestrial (Algeo et al. 2001;Gensel and Edwards 2001) and wetland ecosystems (Greb et al. 2006). ...

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) is a master variable that modulates the form and function of many ecosystems. Approximately, half of the mass of DOM is carbon. Fluxes of DOM transfer carbon and other vital elements between ecosystems and between organisms (e.g., trees to bacteria) and components (e.g., vegetation to soil) within ecosystems. The DOM flux out of trees and understory plants to the forest floor is a poorly studied component of the carbon and nutrient budgets of forest ecosystems. In freshwater systems, studies of DOM transport through terrestrial systems usually start at the stream. However, the interception of rainwater by vegetation marks the beginning of the terrestrial hydrological cycle making plant canopies the crowning headwaters of terrestrial aquatic carbon cycling. Rainwater interacts with canopies picking up DOM, which is then exported from the plant in stemflow and throughfall, where stemflow denotes water flowing down the plant stem and throughfall is the water that drips from and through the leaves, branches, and epiphytes of the canopy. As nearly all studies of vegetation-derived DOM to date report DOM derived from tree canopies (tree-DOM), in this chapter we discuss the quality, potential sources, and potential fates of tree-DOM. We then describe and discuss the drivers of variation of quantitative fluxes of tree-DOM and place these quantitative fluxes in biogeochemical and ecological contexts at scales ranging from the individual tree, forest, and watershed to global trends.

... El grupo de los carnívoros (Orden Carnívora), a pesar de ser uno de los órdenes de mamíferos menos numerosos, comprende un grupo de especies que se alimentan en su mayoría de vertebrados. Entre estos, los félidos se encuentran en la cima de la cadena alimenticia, lo que hace que tengan pocos depredadores y por lo tanto son más susceptibles a los efectos de la mortalidad incidental, como es la inducida por el hombre (Emmons 1997;Nowak & Paradiso 1983;Seidensticker y Lumpkin 1993;Stiling 1999). ...

... Por esta razón los carnívoros son percibidos frecuentemente como competidores del hombre. (Emmons 1997;Nowak & Paradiso 1983;Seidensticker y Lumpkin 1993;Stiling 1999;Wozencraft 1993). ...

... El color básico de su pelaje varía entre matices pardos, grises, leonado o el amarillo dorado y a menudo aparecen patrones cromáticos como círculos, franjas, rosetas o puntos más oscuros. La densidad de pelo, la coloración y el diseño del pelaje genera patrones de camuflaje que facilitan su supervivencia en el medio en el que habitan (Emmons 1997;Stiling 1999 (Emmons 1997;Johnson et al. 2006), las cuales representan aproximadamente el 16,6 % del total de especies en el mundo. También se reporta en el país aunque sin confirmar el Gato de las Pampas (Leopardus colocolo) (Ruiz- García et al. 2003;Johnson et al. 2006) y dos especies exóticas que son el león, (Panthera leo) y el tigre (Panthera tigris) (Moreno com pers). ...

... Two parameters to access the insect diversity and Relative abundance of the recorded species were calculated. The Shannon index and Evenness formula were used for the assessment of insect species diversity as follows (Stiling, 1999) [12]. Relative abundance of monthly occurrence was also calculated based on each species. ...

... number of taxa); (ii) abundance (i.e. numbers of individuals per sites); (iv) dominant species; (v) indicator species; (vi) Berger-Parker index [17]; (vii) Shannon-Wiener index [17]; (viii) Pham index [18,19]; (ix) correlation analysis [12,20]. Based on the analyses of available data (from 1989) combined with the monitoring of benthic macroinvertebrates in ThiVai River and Cai Mep Estauries from 2007 to 2011 and 2015, the changes of benthic macroiverstebrates in Thi Vai River and Cai Mep Estuaries caused by industrial wastewater were suggested. ...

Nguyen Thi Thanh Huong
Duc Pham
Pham Van Mien

The pollution on the Thi Vai River has been spreading out rapidly over the two lasted decades caused by the wastewater from the industrial parks in the left bank of Thi Vai River and Cai Mep Estuaries. The evaluation of the benthic macroinvertebrate changes was very necessary to identify the consequences of the industrial wastewater on water quality and aquatic ecosystem of Thi Vai River and Cai Mep Estuaries. In this study, the variables of benthic macroinvertebrates and water quality were investigated in Thi Vai River and Cai Mep Estuaries, Southern Vietnam. The monitoring data of benthic macroinvertebrates and water quality parameters covered the period from 1989 to 2015 at 6 sampling sites in Thi Vai River and Cai Mep Estuaries. The basic water quality parameters were also tested including pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), total nitrogen, and total phosphorus. The biodiversity indices of benthic macroinvertebrates were applied for water quality assessment. The results showed that pH ranged from 6.4 – 7.6 during the monitoring. The DO concentrations were in between 0.20 - 6.70 mg/L. The concentrations of total nitrogen and total phosphorous ranged from 0.03 - 5.70 mg/L 0.024 - 1.380 mg/L respectively. Macroinvertebrate community in the study area consisted of 36 species of polychaeta, gastropoda, bivalvia, and crustacea, of which, species of polychaeta were dominant in species number. The benthic macroinvertebartes density ranged from 0 - 2.746 individuals/m

... Stand biomass has been used as primary productivity in some former studies (Hector et al. 1999;, however, increment of biomass, basal area or carbon could be appropriate metrics for aboveground biomass productivity (Finegan et al. 2015;Forrester and Bauhus 2016). An analysis of the relationship between mean biomass and gross primary production based on data from Stiling (1996), showed a positive correlation across different forest ecosystems (Figure 1.2), suggesting that biomass can be used as proxy for productivity. Among the biodiversity-productivity relationships described by Mittelbach (2001), only 14% actually measured productivity, and biomass was used as proxy in 34.4% of the studies (Jenkins 2015). ...

... In contrast, for natural forests, there is little agreement across studies that have examined the relationship between biodiversity and productivity (Seidel et al. 2013). Relationship between mean biomass and gross primary production across different forest ecosystems (data from Whittaker cited in Stiling (1996)). ...

Sylvanus Mensah

Ecosystem services (ES) are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. Biodiversity is a relevant component in this context, as it supports most ecosystem functions. The worldwide decline in natural ecosystem biodiversity and degradation of ecosystems will likely limit the opportunities to improve the services provided if an explicit focus is not put on their maintenance and improvement in future management decisions. This thesis aims at contributing to the knowledge base of ES provision and its relation with biodiversity in South African Mistbelt forests. First, a socio-empirical study was conducted with households from different localities in Limpopo province to assess the relative importance and use of ES by local population. Questionnaires, descriptive rank analysis, logistic regressions and Poisson mixed effect models were used. Results revealed that provisioning and supporting ES (timber and firewood, edible plants and honey) were the most important, and that age, gender, income as well as prior recreational experiences played important roles in respondents' perceptions. "Timber and firewood" and "honey" were selected for further investigation in Mistbelt natural forests in Limpopo. Second, the potential of Mistbelt forests as foraging habitat for managed honey bees, and as tree biomass and carbon sinks was investigated. Forest inventory was conducted to collect data on woody plant species (plant density, diameter, total height, pollen and nectar values of honey bee plant species; branch and wood core samples, leaf area, plant maximum height). The diversity of honey bee plant species, temporal availability of honey bee forage and relationship of plant diversity with forage production, were explored, using descriptive analysis and general linear models. As results, 48% of the woody plant species recorded in the inventory were honey bee plant species. The highest potential of forage supply was observed during the last quarter of the year. Bee plant species richness, not overall plant richness, showed the greater effect on forage provision. New multispecies biomass models were established and used to estimate aboveground biomass and carbon stocks, and examine the relationship of aboveground carbon with tree species diversity and structural variables. Allometric models with "DBH2xH" were the best fitting. Biomass and carbon stand values of 358.1 Mg ha-1 and 179.0 Mg ha-1, respectively, were obtained. Basal area of most important species, and of largest trees, as well as plant richness were positively correlated with carbon stock. The relationship of biomass and carbon stock with biodiversity components was the final focus. An analysis scrutinised the effects of taxonomic diversity on carbon storage. Correlations were explored through functional traits-based diversity and dominance, using structural equation and linear mixed-effects models. Results showed that taxonomic diversity effects on carbon stock were positive, and mediated by functional diversity and functional dominance. The effects, however, were greater for functional diversity than for functional dominance. In sum, a novel contribution was made to the ES provision of South African Mistbelt forests, which provides a base for the assessment of these forests and their contribution and underpins the need to protect these ecosystems as a natural heritage.

... For example, trout species thrive in cold, oxygen-rich water, while bass and sunfish species persist in warmer, oxygen-depleted water. Additional abiotic factors that influence these zones or layers include a waterbody's physical characteristics (depth, surface area, and latitude), wind-driven circulation, and pH [1]. ...

... Describing community patterns through different metrics helps managers to characterize communities and compare them with other areas [1,2]. The simplest metric used, richness (S), is the number of species present in a given area. ...

Taylor J. Senegal
Elizabeth Flaherty

Natural resource managers often use quantitative methods to characterize and manage ecosystems. A firm understanding of these methods, ranging from simple counts to complex models, is critical in conducting accurate population and community assessments. Students can gain an advantage in understanding these methods through early exposure and contextual examples. This fictional case study follows three American Fisheries Society club members who perform an ecological assessment of a landowner's ponds. The club members use multiple sampling methods and analyses to answer the landowner's questions. In this study, students are introduced to common assessment metrics, such as community patterns (richness, diversity, evenness, and similarity), abundance estimates (mark-recapture, depletion, swept-area, and line-transect), size structure (proportional stock density), and growth estimates (absolute, relative, and instantaneous growth rates; von Bertalanffy growth model). Students will also interpret results and identify physical or biological factors that may influence those results. After completing this case study, students will be able to describe the need for population and community assessments and apply these assessments to various scenarios.

... The similarity between pairs of heights was analyzed with the Jaccard coefficient and the Czekanowski-Sørensen method, qualitative methods explained by Polo (2008). The Jaccard coefficient (Cj) is based on the presence-absence ratio between the number of species in each system and the total number of species (Stiling, 1999), given by the following equation: ...

... -D = 1 -∑pi 2 La similitud entre pares de alturas se analizó con el coeficiente de Jaccard y el método de Czekanowski-Sørensen, métodos cualitativos explicados porPolo (2008). El coeficiente de Jaccard (Cj) se basa en la relación de presencia-ausencia entre el número de especies en cada sistema y el número total de especies(Stiling, 1999), dado por la siguiente ecuación: ...

Introduction: Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) yields in Chiapas, Mexico remain low, but can be improved with agroforestry designs that consider tree composition to ensure diversity and carbon sequestration. Objective: To determine tree diversity and stored carbon at three elevational levels of cocoa agroforestry systems in Soconusco, Chiapas. Materials and methods: Representative 50 x 20 m plots were established at three elevational levels (0 to 50 m, 51 to 100 m and ≥101 m). Species were counted and classified taxonomically. Diameter at breast height, height of each species, diversity, similarity between pairs of heights, and carbon storage were estimated. Results and discussion: Richness was 35 tree species selected by the producers to shade the cocoa crop. These were grouped into 32 genera and 22 families. Abundance was 199 trees, with abundance per plot and diversity being the highest at ≥101 m. Lower diversity was associated with heights with less equity between abundance and richness. Carbon stored in aerial biomass ranged from 224.9 to 362.1 Mg·ha⁻¹; the amount was highest at lower elevations (0 to 50 m). Conclusions: Agroforestry systems had medium to high diversity. Species distribution, by elevational level, responds to the interests of the producers and to the composition of the natural forest. The amount of stored carbon was high, due to the abundance, richness and dominance of the species.

... Kualitas air di Sungai Ranoyapo ditentukan berdasarkan indeks keanekaragaman makrozoobentos. Indeks keanekaragaman dihitung dengan menggunakan rumus Shannon-Wiener (H') (Stiling, 1996). Kriteria Staub et al (1970) untuk tingkat pencemaran berdasarkan nilai indeks H' yaitu tercemar sangat ringan (H': 3,0 -4,5), tercemar ringan (H': 2,0 -3,0), tercemar sedang (H': 1,0 -2,0), dan tercemar berat (H': 0,0 -1,0 ) (Wilhm, 1975;Siahaan, 2012). ...

MAKROZOOBENTOS SEBAGAI INDIKATOR BIOLOGIS DALAM MENENTUKAN KUALITAS AIR SUNGAI RANOYAPO, MINAHASA SELATAN, SULAWESI UTARA ABSTRAK Sungai Ranoyapo merupakan sungai terpanjang di Wilayah Minahasa dengan panjang sekitar 60, 5 Km. Sungai Ranoyapo adalah sungai utama DAS Ranoyapo yang memiliki luas sekitar 87,154 Ha. Sungai Ranoyapo melintasi kawasan pertanian, perkebunan, permukiman penduduk, dan industri. Limbah yang berasal dari kawasan tersebut mempengaruhi kualitas air Sungai Ranoyapo. Makrozoobentos dapat digunakan sebagai parameter biologi dalam menentukan kondisi sungai karena hidupnya relatif diam di dasar sungai. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menentukan kualitas air Sungai Ranoyapo berdasarkan indeks keanekaragaman makrozoobentos. Penelitian dilakukan pada musim hujan yaitu Januari-Maret 2013. Lokasi penelitian ditentukan dari bagian hulu, tengah dan hilir sungai dengan 3 ulangan di tiap lokasi. Kualitas air Sungai Ranoyapo ditentukan berdasarkan indeks keanekaragaman makrozoobentos dari Shannon Wiener (H') menurut kriteria Staub et al (1970). Makrozoobentos di Sungai Ranoyapo terdiri dari 3 Filum, 5 Kelas, 13 Bangsa, 21 Suku, dan 23 Marga. Indeks keanekaragaman makrozoobentos dari Stasiun I (hulu), Stasiun II (tengah) dan Stasiun III (hilir) yaitu 2,43; 2,06; dan 1,77. Kualitas air Sungai Ranoyapo di Stasiun I dan di Stasiun II telah tercemar ringan dengan indeks H': 2,0 – 3,0 (H'>2). Kualitas air Sungai Ranoyapo di Stasiun III telah tercemar sedang dengan indeks H' sekitar 1,0 – 2,0 (H' <2). Kata kunci: Sungai Ranoyapo, kualitas air, pencemaran air, keanekaragaman makrozoobentos MACROZOOBENTHOS AS BIOINDICATOR IN DETERMINING WATER QUALITY OF RANOYAPO RIVER, SOUTH MINAHASA, NORTH SULAWESI ABSTRACT Ranoyapo River is the longest river in the Minahasa Region with its length of 60.5 Km. Ranoyapo River is the main river watershed Ranoyapo which its area of 87.154 ha. Ranoyapo River crosses agricultural, plantation, resident, and industry areas. Waste originated from those areas will affect water quality of Ranoyapo River. Macrozoobenthos can be used as a biological parameter in determining the condition of the river because they relatively slow move on the riverbed. This study aims to determine the water quality of the River Ranoyapo based on biodiversity index of macrozoobenthos. The study was conducted during the rainy season i.e. from January to March 2013. Three locations were chosen from upstream, midstream and downstream river with 3 replications in each location. The quality of Ranoyapo River was determined by the biodiversity index Shannon Wiener (H') of macrozoobenthos using classification of Staub et al (1970. Macrozoobenthos of Ranoyapo River consisted of 3 Phyla, 5 Classes, 13 Orders, 21 Families, and 23 Genus. Biodiversity index (H') of macrozoobenthos from up (Station I), middle (Station II) and downstream (Station III) respectively were 2.43; 2.06, and 1.77. The quality of Ranoyapo River at up and middle were lightly polluted with index H': 2.0 to 3.0 (H '> 2.0) and at down was moderately polluted with index H ': 1.0 to 2.0 (H' <2). Keywords: Ranoyapo River, water quality, water pollution, macrozoobenthos biodiversity

... While the predator-prey sub-metaphor is widely used in the business (ecosystem) literature (Moore 1993) to describe co-evolving relationships, this actually implies a form of agonistic (+−) relationship, in which one party benefits and the other party suffers from the relationship (Martin and Schwab 2012), rather than competition (−−) in the biological sense, in which both parties suffer due to competition over the same resources. In addition to predation, other types of agonistic interactions commonly used in biology are grazing, parasitic or parasitoid relations, which differ in terms of the intimacy and lethality of the relationship for either party (Stiling 1999). Parasitic relationships have also attracted attention within business research, for example in the context of large business groups in emerging markets (Khanna and Yafeh 2005) or when law firms are Re-storying the Business, Innovation and Entrepreneurial Ecosystem Concepts 13 accused of being parasitic rent-seekers (Galanter 1993). ...

We propose a novel literature review method in order to systematically trace and reveal the dominant narratives of a body of literature: the model-narrative review method. We apply this method to an ever-growing literature on ecosystems in business studies, as it resembles a rich knowledge base with somewhat competing, overarching stories, replete with emplotted characters, systematic puzzles and embellished scientific drama. To interpret these unfolding storylines, we both separately engage with and connect seminal work on business, entrepreneurial and innovation ecosystems. Through thematic reading we map the key themes and scientific puzzles in each ecosystem type. Through enstoried reading we identify how authors construct the plot, narrative setting, emplotted characters, narrative voices and moral lessons around ecosystems. Through rhetorical reading we explicate the rhetorical devices and strategies that claim the relevance of their work. Our findings expose a number of hidden meanings and underlying assumptions, adding transparency to ecosystem rhetorics and enhancing conceptual clarity. Altogether, this method offers a systematic construction of model-narratives to synthesise and critically reflect upon similarities and differences between related concepts and opens up space for alternative research questions.

... Population genetic bottleneck, geographic isolation, living environment, gene flow, and natural selection have large effects on the genetic construction of populations (Li et al., 2007). It has been found that biogeography and long-term climate changes first influence the genetic diversity and morphological variations in the species with so many studies to date (Stiling, 1992;Raven and Johnson, 1995;Cabral et al., 2003;Pinheiro et al., 2005;Mahe et al., 2014). ...

Bu çalışma Karadeniz Bölgesi'ndeki farklı alanlarda örneklenen Barbus tauricus populasyonları arasındaki türiçi varyasyonları ortaya çıkarmak için gerçekleştirilmiştir. Karadeniz Bölgesi'ndeki farklı içsulardan (Akçay (Samsun), Engiz Çayı (Samsun), Terme Çayı (Samsun) Karadere (Trabzon) and Değirmenağzı Deresi (Düzce)) toplamda 250 örnek yakalanmıştır. Tür içi varyasyonlar mtDNA cyt b sekansı kullanılarak saptanmıştır. Popülasyonların genetik yapıları moleküler varyans analizi (AMOVA) ile belirlenmiştir. Bu çalışmada GENBANK veri tabanından alınan Cyprinus carpio L., 1758 (DQ868874.1)(dış grup) ve diğer Barbus türleri karşılaştırmalı analizlerde kullanılmıştır. Cyt b gen bölgesinin 1141 baz çiftlik toplam sekansı ve 11 haplotip elde edilmiştir. AMOVA analizinden elde edilen moleküler veriler B.tauricus türiçi varyasyonun varlığını ve varyasyonun % 26.1 oranında gruplar arasında olduğunu ortaya çıkarmıştır. Tüm populasyonlardan elde edilen FST değeri populasyonlardaki genetik heterojeniteyi doğrulamaktadır (FST= 0.59310). Genetik analizler, B. tauricus populasyonlarının coğrafik olarak farklılıklar gösterdiğini ortaya çıkarmıştır.

... Ectoparasites dynamics such as mean intensity and prevalence were calculated using relevant equations [20,21]. ...

Stephanie Mdzuami Adelusi

A survey of ectoparasite species infesting wild birds at two gallery forests in Makurdi was investigated to provide baseline information on the types of ectoparasites infesting wild birds. Birds were trapped from September 2015 to August 2016; a combination of visual examination and dust ruffling technique was used to remove ectoparasites from live birds. Specimens were preserved in labeled vials containing 70% alcohol. The parasites were identified using standard taxonomic keys when viewed under a light microscope. A total of 254 birds were captured out of which, 174 (68.5%) were infested with 1,294 ectoparasites (1,208 lice, 25ticks, 50 mites and 11 flies). The birds had high single infestation 107(42.1%). Ectoparasitic infestation varied significantly between months (F(11, 253)=2.620, P<0.05) and between bird species (F(58, 253)=2.353, P<0.05), with the months of May and June showing higher infestations and at the Mu gallery Forest. The study concludes that there is high prevalence of ectoparasites on wild birds at gallery forests hence making the forests possible reservoir for ectoparasites for domestic birds. The study recommends further studies to determine the effects of parasites on the health of wild birds and possible transmission of parasites from wild to domestic birds. Keywords: Disease, Host, Infestation, Lice, Prevalence, Vectors

... A general discussion on the multi-species populations models can be viewed in Kapur [5]. The comprehensive report on theoretical ecology can be found from Stiling [6]. The basic concepts in mathematical modeling are got from the treatises of Lotka [7] and Kuang [8]. ...

Srinivasarao Thota

This paper elucidates an ecological model of a three-space food chain consists of two competing species and a third species, which is supporting the first competing species in non-linear manner of Holling type-II functional response and ingests the second competitive species in linear style, within the limited resources. This model is constituted by a system of non-linear decoupled first order ordinary differential equations. By using perturbed method, we investigate the local stability nature of the system at each possible equilibrium point. Further, the numerical illustrations at suitable parametric values to the model are presented by observing the species survivalness in nature for long time.

... The algal samples were preserved by Lugolʼs iodine solution, and concentrated nitric acid and the methods were used to clarify diatom frustule (10,11). The following references were used to identify the algae (12,13,14,15,16,17). Richness index was calculated according to Stiling (18), and the value of Shannon and Weaver and Evenness indices were calculated as follows (19). ...

Shaimaa F. Ali

Abstract: The study was conducted to measure diatom species diversity in the lotic ecosystem across the Wasit Province for 12 months. The quantitative study of diatoms (phytoplankton) was investigated in the Tigris river. The density of algae was ranged from 60989 cell×103/l to 112780.82 cell×103/l in the five sites. These algae were belonging to 39 genera. The richness index values ranged from 1.53 at site 5 in January 2016 to 6.34 at site 1 and June2015. Shannon-Weiner diversity index (H´) was 2.33 in February 2016 and 3.72 in June 2015 both values at site 3, whereas Evenness index was 0.54 at site 5 in March2016 and 0.98 at site 1 in both August2015 and May2016. The lack of homogeneity of the appearance of species indicates the dominance of a few species with high densities, which is an indicator of the existence of environmental pressure. All studied indices showed that the Tigris River quality is suitable for the living aquatic life or may be slightly affected by the pollutants. Keywords: Water quality, Diatoms, Tigris River, richness index, Shannon-Weiner index, Evenness index.

... The per capita reproductive rates were estimated based on the number of larvae of C. cacti that appeared in each time interval, divided by the total number of adults at that moment. Based on these data, we estimated the net reproductive rate (R 0 = ∑l x m x ), which indicates the number of descendants produced by each C. cacti individual present in the population and allows an estimate of population growth for a given time interval (Stiling 2002). ...

The wild cochineal (Dactylopius opuntiae Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae) is considered to be the most important pest in cactus pear plantations. In Mexico, there are seven natural enemies that provide natural biological control of D. opuntiae. However, their role and impact have not been evaluated. In this article, we report on aspects of the population biology of Chilocorus cacti L. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), which is considered one of the main natural enemies of D. opuntiae. We also conducted experiments to evaluate the consumption of C. cacti by this predator when fed nymphs and adult females of D. opuntiae. Changes in the survival function of D. opuntiae in the presence or absence C. cacti were also identified. Both larvae and adults of C. cacti prefer to consume D. opuntiae nymphs because the wax produced by adult females presents a significant obstacle. The survival analysis showed that the presence of C. cacti had significant negative effects on D. opuntiae survival. C. cacti significantly increased its abundance while reducing the density of adult female D. opuntiae, but this impact occurred only after they had consumed the more preferred nymphs. For this reason, natural enemies other than C. cacti may be required to achieve adequate levels of biological control.

... A quantitative floristic sweep transect was performed for this sample plots of 600 m 2 (12 m wide by 50 m long) were defined, these were established longitudinal and zigzagging manner according to the river and covered both the current water, which at that time of year (November-October, 2012) measured between 1 and 1.5 m wide, and two strips of gallery forest. In each sample plot all tree species present with a diameter at breast height (DAP), measured at 1.3 m, greater than 5 cm and value indices of relative importance (IVIR) were calculated using the following equation counted taken from Stiling (1999). ...

En San Pablo Ixayoc, Texcoco, Estado de México, México, se seleccionaron 10 árboles de aile (Alnus acuminata K.) de un bosque de galería con el objetivo de determinar su contenido aéreo de biomasa y carbono mediante un método no destructivo. Para determinar la biomasa de las copas: las ramas se clasificaron en cuatro categorías diamétricas, se podaron algunas ramas por copa y fueron separadas en madera y hojas, estos componentes fueron pesados individualmente y se obtuvo el peso fresco promedio (kg) por componente y tipo de rama. Se estimó: el porcentaje de humedad de la madera (49%) y hojas (62%), la biomasa promedio en peso seco (kg) por componente según el tipo de rama, y se extrapoló la información al inventario de ramas por copa. Para calcular la biomasa de los fustes: B= DM(1/4π(DAP)2 . AFl . Ffp), se calculó: densidad de la madera (DM= 0.62 Mg m–3), volumen de fustes, alturas de fuste limpio (Afl) y el factor de forma (Ffp= 0,66). Se emplearon dos modelos: Y= B0 + B1Xi (lineal) y Y= b . Xk (exponencial), el mejor modelo fue el exponencial. Las ecuaciones alométricas quedaron expresadas como B= 0.0012DAP1,7877 y CCA= 0.0006DAP1,7755, ambas con coeficientes de determinación R2= 0.95, donde B es biomasa (Mg; toneladas por metro cúbico), DAP es diámetro a la altura de pecho (cm) y CCA es contenido de carbono por árbol (Mg). La distribución porcentual de biomasa fue: 64.92, 27.06 y 8.02 y de carbono: 65.12, 27.15 y 7.72 para fustes, ramas y hojas respectivamente.

... For example, for year 1, on the non-agriculturally managed for the average range 12.5, there were 682 observations and 402 with agriculturally management. are more visible and detectable by insects and can therefore be colonized more easily (Feeney 1976, Stiling 2002. ...

Arsenura armida plays an important ecological role in the development of woods and forests throughout Latin America. It is also consumed in several rural communities of Mexico. At present, there is no information on the host preferences of this species of moth, habitat type or the effects of human consumption on population numbers. This paper determines the effect of agricultural management on the distribution, occupation and abundance of larvae of A. armida in order to promote strategies for its sustainable exploitation. Six observation plots, each with an area of 4 km², were established in three localities of the state of Chiapas, Mexico. Three plots were subject to agricultural management (La Pimienta, La Ilusion and La Loma) and three without management (Carrizal, Huachinadero and Mirador). All host plants together with their diameter at breast height (DBH) were quantified. In order to estimate host preference, occupation, distribution and abundance, the number of larvae per tree were recorded over two consecutive years (between March and October). The occupation and abundance of A. armida varied among plots and the six tree species observed. Both variables presented a relationship with the mean DBH of the host species. A preference for the host species Heliocarpus appendiculatus and Rollinia mucosa was observed. The greatest abundance of larvae and host occupation was found in plots subject to agricultural management during the first year. Abundance decreased during the second year due to tree mortality. The insect presented a clustered distribution that depended on the distribution and development of host trees (highest DBH). It is suggested that host management is considered for the control of populations of A. armida in agricultural areas and its sustainable exploitation for human consumption.

The study was conducted to measure diatom species diversity in the lotic ecosystem across the Wasit Province for 12 months. The quantitative study of diatoms (phytoplankton) was investigated in the Tigris river. The density of algae was ranged from 60989 cell×103/l to 112780.82 cell×103/l in the five sites. These algae were belonging to 39 genera. The richness index values ranged from 1.53 at site 5 in January 2016 to 6.34 at site 1 and June2015. Shannon-Weiner diversity index (H´) was 2.33 in February 2016 and 3.72 in June 2015 both values at site 3, whereas Evenness index was 0.54 at site 5 in March2016 and 0.98 at site 1 in both August2015 and May2016. The lack of homogeneity of the appearance of species indicates the dominance of a few species with high densities, which is an indicator of the existence of environmental pressure. All studied indices showed that the Tigris River quality is suitable for the living aquatic life or may be slightly affected by the pollutants.

... Con la finalidad de comparar la semejanza florística de las UM entre las tres actividades (An, AyD, Do) se calcularon mediante el software Bio~DAP (Magurran, 1988) los siguientes índices: Sorensen (C S ), relaciona el número de especies en común con la media aritmética de las especies totales (Stiling, 1999); y Sorensen cuantitativo (C N ), compara la abundancia de las especies compartidas con la abundancia total (Magurran, 1988). Análisis estadístico. ...

Ara macao cyanoptera es una especie en situación prioritaria de conservación según la lista roja de la IUCN (2014), pero las investigaciones sobre su hábitat son escasas. Por este motivo se estudiaron las características estructurales de la vegetación arbórea en los sitios que utiliza Ara macao cyanoptera para anidación (An), alimentación y descanso (AyD) y dormitorio (Do) en el Ejido Reforma Agraria, Marqués de Comillas, Chiapas. Para ello se identificaron árboles focales (AF) mediante recorridos diurnos y vespertinos con ayuda de guías comunitarios. Tomando como centro estos AF se establecieron 17 unidades de muestreo (UM) circulares de 1000 m2: nueve UM en sitios An, seis en AyD, y dos en Do. Se calcularon los índices de valor de importancia (IVI) y valor forestal (IVF), diversidad de Shannon-Wiener (H´) y semejanza florística. Se registraron 46 especies arbóreas, de 44 géneros y 22 familias, de las cuales 15 especies, 15 géneros y nueve familias fueron aprovechadas por A. macao cyanoptera para sus actividades. Esta especie anida en árboles de Ceiba pentandra (IVI=45.9, IVF=45.6), Ficus cotinifolia (IVI=30.2, IVF=27.5) y Vatairea lundellii (IVI=15.5, IVF=12.1); durante la época no reproductiva el 80% de su dieta se basa en el consumo de frutos y semillas de Spondias mombin (IVI=22.1, IVF=25.7), duerme en árboles de Acacia usumacintensis (IVI=75.3, IVF=124) y V. lundellii (IVI=43.4, IVF=49.7). A. macao cyanoptera utiliza áreas silvopastoriles con semejanza florística de 29 a 75%, cercanas a zonas fluviales, con una densidad arbórea de 260 individuos ha-1. Siendo la diversidad arbórea (H´= 3.1) un factor determinante en la disponibilidad de recurso alimenticio para esta especies

... Este índice es sencillo y ha sido ampliamente utilizado con fi nes comparativos (Magurran, 1988). Además, debido a que la mayoría de los trabajos sobre equinodermos del Pacífi co mexicano no incluyen datos cuantitativos (abundancia), el índice de Jaccard es adecuado debido a que se basa sólo en la relación presencia-ausencia entre el número de especies registradas en cada localidad y el número total de especies (Stiling, 1999). ...

This study describes the species composition of echinoderms from Isla Isabel National Park, in the central Mexican Pacific. The samplings and collection transects band were made in October 2004, March and July 2005 by direct search on several rocky beaches, and on rocky and sandy substrates in subtidal areas to 19 m depth. The specimens collected with a trawling net from the shrimp vessel "America" in adjacent waters were also included. A total of 299 organisms belonging to 31 species and 19 families of echinoderms were registered. The greatest abundance was recorded in the nothern (43%) and eastern (39%) regions of the island where there is greater substrate heterogeneity, and the lowest was in the western region (3%). The highest richness of species was recorded in the eastern (36%), northern (31%) and southern (29%) zones of the island. The holothuroids were the most diverse with 10 species. The most important species according the biological value index are: Diadema mexicanum, Toxopneustes roseus, Phataria unifascialis, Pharia pyramidatus, Ophiocoma alexandri, Holothuria lubrica, Isostichopus fuscus and Eucidaris thouarsii representing the 60% of all individuals. The species affinity is greater with the Gulf of California than the Pacific center-south region.

... PRIMATES in tropical forests may interact with other nonprimate species which coexist with them 1-3 . These interactions could be either positive, negative or neutral 4,5 , and may vary with space and time [5][6][7] , largely depending on ecological and historical factors which shape them. The primates mainly interact with their prey, predators, feeding competitors and neutral species, and may display a variety of behaviours towards an interacting species 5 . ...

Primates and non-primates inhabiting tropical forests may interact with each other since they coexist in the same communities. Primates usually interact with their prey, predators, competitors and neutral species. Using 'all occurrence' sampling, we have studied inter-specific interactions of lion-tailed macaques with non-primate species found in their habitat. We observed that the percentage of total time spent on interactions with non-primates was less than 1. Also, the percentage of total time spent in interacting with competitors, predators and neutral species was less than 0.5. The lack of predation pressure and lack of opportunities for mixed-species associations for increasing foraging efficiency appear to be the major reasons for the absence of interactions with nonprimates. By comparing with studies from other primate habitat regions, we observed that primates in South Asia interact much lesser with non-primates than those in South America and Africa. A previous study showed that the interactions of lion-tailed macaques even with other primate species in the Western Ghats are less than expected by chance.

... Para determinar el coeficiente de Jaccard (Cj) se utilizó la fórmula 2. Esta se basa en la relación de presenciaausencia entre el número de especies en cada sistema y el número total de especies (Stiling, 1999). ...

Carlos Hugo Avendaño Arrazate
Gicli M Suárez Venero
Alexander Mendoza López
Saúl Espinosa-Zaragoza

Introducción. La composición arbórea asociada al cacao criollo y la que se desarrolla en los sistemas productivos de cacao, es diferente. Esta información es importante para adoptar futuras estrategias en programas de conservación y mejoramiento. Objetivo. Contribuir al conocimiento sobre la composición arbórea de especies asociadas al cacao criollo en México. Materiales y métodos. Los datos analizados en este estudio incluyeron variables de la estructura horizontal y vertical, además de la diversidad de especies arbóreas asociadas al cacao en diferentes condiciones. Este estudio se realizó durante mayo a septiembre del 2018, en parcelas donde se encontraron árboles de cacao criollo en su hábitat natural de la selva Lacandona y en plantaciones de cacao en tres localidades del Soconusco, en Chiapas, México. En las mismas se contabilizaron y clasificaron taxonómicamente las especies arbóreas. Resultados. Asociadas al cacao criollo en la selva Lacandona se registraron veintiún especies, que se agruparon en diecinueve géneros y trece familias, cuya abundancia, riqueza y densidad fue mayor que la registrada en sistemas productivos de cacao en la región del Soconusco, lo que contribuyó a una diferencia entre ambos ecosistemas con solo dos especies compartidas. Conclusión. La abundancia, riqueza y densidad de especies arbóreas asociadas al cacao criollo fue mayor que la registrada en los sistemas de producción, con disimilitud en sus condiciones. Se registraron diferencias en la localización del cultivo del cacao dentro de la estructura vertical de ambos escenarios estudiados.

... Como as plantas são incapazes de se locomover para escapar dos herbívoros, tiveram que desenvolver técnicas para minimizar sua predação, criando estratégias variadas de defesa e repulsão de seus predadores. Um importante meio de defesa são metabólitos secundários, que geralmente são concentradas nas partes da planta que mais contribuem para o crescimento e propagação como folhas novas, ramos de florescência e sementes (BRAZ-FILHO, 1994;STILING, 1996;RALPHS;GARDNER;PFISTER, 2000;BARBOSA;RIBEIRO FILHO, 2007). ...

Luciana Silva de Carvalho
Kleber Fernando Pereira
Eugênio Gonçalves de Araújo

O cerrado é um bioma com uma grande quantidade de exemplares botânicos utilizados por populares para o tratamento de diversas enfermidades. A avaliação do potencial terapêutico de plantas medicinais e de alguns de seus constituintes, tais como flavonoides, alcaloides, triterpenos, sesquiterpenos, taninos, lignanas e outros, tem sido objeto de incessantes estudos, a partir dos quais já foram comprovadas ações farmacológicas por meio de testes pré-clínicos com animais. Esta revisão da literatura tem o propósito de apresentar os principais princípios ativos já identificados no Caryocar brasiliense e também o que se tem descoberto e comprovado, cientificamente, quanto à atividade terapêutica deste fruto, demonstrando a sua importância para o desenvolvimento de possíveis terapias contra variadas doenças.

... Human activities such as agriculture and livestock keeping cause ecological impacts on natural ecosystems all over the world particularly in the third world countries. The accelerated decline of African wildlife species and populations is caused by increasing environmental disturbances, habitat deterioration, consumptive utilization and expansion of agriculture (Peter, 1996). In recent years, the expansion of human settlements, livestock grazing, agriculture and commercial forestry has increased the pressure on Tanzania's natural habitats (Kiss, 1996;East, 1998;Caro, 1999;Luoga, 2000). ...

Alfred Chitiki
G M Kauki

This study was conducted to assess the influence of socioeconomic factors on population trend and distribution of puku (Kobus vardoni) in Kilombero Game Controlled Area in Tanzania.Purposive sampling technique was used in the selection of the six villages out of 32 villages adjacent to KGCA. The number of respondents for each village was obtained from official lists of village households. Random sampling method was used to select households. The results indicate that socioeconomic activities have a strong impact to the population trend and distribution of puku antelopes. It is concluded that the increase in anthropogenic activities is among the contributing factors which result into negative impact on puku population trend and distribution in Kilombero Game Controlled Area. The need of upgrading the status of Kilombero Game Controlled Area to be a Game Reserve is crucial to improve protection. Finally the use of land use plans and control of livestock population for the villages surrounding Kilombero Game Controlled Area is suggested.

... Furthermore, this effect becomes more pronounced for the small sized populations. It has been suggested that a population size of at least 500 is adequate to effectively decrease the effect of genetic drift (Stiling, 1996). Accordingly, the '50/500' rule of thumb has often been recommended in the field of conservation as a "magic" number (Franklin, 1980;Simberloff, 1988). ...

The paper attempts to briefly review the methods of random number generation and such numbers from some commonly used probability distributions such as Normal, Binomial and Poisson distributions in biological and particularly in ecological work. Besides, Monte Carlo simulation theory is briefly introduced. The Monte Carlo simulation is applied to i) Genetic drift and ii) Random walk models of predator-prey interaction. Simulation of genetic drift is accomplished for haploid and diploid populations. In addition, genetic drift is also examined together with mutation. For a high mutation rate an example of peppered moth Bistson betularia is chosen in which mutation occurs from typical form c (typica) to C (carbonaria).Computer programs were developed for linear congruential and multiplicative congruential methods of random number generation and the two methods were tested and compared. Both linear congruential and multiplicative congruential methods of random number generation gave almost equally good results in terms of period length, uniformity of distribution and with regard to other tests of randomness. Monte Carlo simulations of genetic drift for both haploid and diploid populations showed that smaller population size showed marked fluctuations and greater number of fixation (as well as loss) of alleles either A or a. Genetic drift scenarios incorporating high mutation rate (0.041) gave upward trends of increasing frequency of carbonaria C gene with increasing number of generations suggesting predominance of carbonaria population with the passage of time. These results support the field studies. The random walk model of predator-prey interaction involves random movement of predator (random walk) on a square grid having a prey population (N ≥ 100) where they search, encounter and capture (or fail to capture) the prey. These stochastic events are simulated through a Monte Carlo technique suggested earlier with modifications. The method involves defining an r r grid that contains the uniformly distributed prey population. The predators (a few in number) walk over the grid randomly feeding on the prey when encountered and captured. It is assumed that the predator is unable to capture and eat all of them in a cell. Each prey has a certain probability of escape or hiding from the predator. The probability of capture PC is fixed at the beginning. Furthermore, the maximum consumption of the predator in one cell (C x) is also fixed prior to simulation. The predator is allowed to move on the grid in all four directions of movement with equal probability. When the maximum time units of the simulation are completed, average and standard deviation of both encounter and consumption are computed for each of the K predators. The simulations gave some interesting results with regard to encounter, consumption and escape of prey. The random walk stochastic model given here is certainly an improvement over the deterministic model since the former captures a number of stochastic events involved in the process beginning with the movement of predator to the encounter,capture (or escape) and consumption of the prey.

... The calculated diversity indices were compared with the known system of the pollution level [30] and complicity of the community structure according to Wilhm and Dorris (a) and Staub et al. (b) [31,32] (table 1). ...

... Species Evenness: According to Cox [30,31] the species evenness is: ...

Alfred Chitiki
G M Kauki

... El parasitismo es una relación obligatoria en la cual un huésped o parásito se aloja temporal o permanentemente dentro o sobre un individuo de especie diferente (huésped), del cual depende metabólicamente y le sirve de alimento (Ricklefs, 1998;Stiling, 1996;Sánchez, 2000). La mayoría de los parásitos se especializan más en sus huéspedes que los mismos depredadores que se comen la presa completa (Lampert & Sommer, 1997;Ebert, 2005). ...

Ana L. Estrada-Posada
Edith Yohana Agudelo-Acevedo

We studied the spatial and temporal variations of Ascomorphella volvocicola and Volvox densities in Riogrande II reservoir by collecting samples every 10 days for 12 months at three sites located on the longitudinal axis of the Chico River. We also estimated the percentage of membrane damage caused by the rotifer and the percentage of infection in the algae colonies. The verification of the research hypothesis indicated that the rotifer (A. volvocicola) is an obligate endoparasite that develops its life cycle within the host algae (Volvox), whose population dynamics is determined by spatial and temporal changes of the host and at no time by the environmental conditions of the reservoir. In contrast, the variations in the density of the colonial algae were not determined by the parasite or by the nutrients or other environmental variables evaluated possibly due to the migration capacity of Volvox in the water column, which allows it to choose the most convenient environments. We concluded that only Volvox determines the appearance and dynamics of A. volvocicola, but this does not influence the dynamics of Volvox, as this endoparasite rotifer failed to decimate Volvox populations in the hydrological cycle evaluated. We also concluded that there is a one-way dependency relationship such that A. volvocicola will only be present if there are Volvox colonies.

... Penghitungan indeks keanekaragaman dilakukan dengan menggunakan rumus Shannon-Wiener (Stiling, 1996): ...

Taman Hutan Raya (Tahura) Ir. H. Djuanda merupakan suatu daerah konservasi di Kota Bandung. Longsor merupakan permasalahan yang terjadi di Tahura Ir. H. Djuanda, tepatnya di sepanjang jalur antara Gua Belanda dan Maribaya. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk membandingkan struktur komunitas tumbuhan di area bekas longsor dan nonlongsor sepanjang jalur Gua Belanda-Maribaya di Tahura Ir. H. Djuanda. Analisis vegetasi dilakukan dengan metode plot bertingkat ukuran 20 x 20 m untuk habitus pohon, 10 x 10 m untuk perdu, dan 2 x 2 m untuk herba. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa terdapat perbedaan struktur komunitas dan keanekaragaman jenis tumbuhan antara kedua area. Pada pohon, Pinus merkusii dan Homalanthus populneus (INP 128,5% dan 27,4%) adalah jenis pohon dominan pada area longsor, sedangkan P. merkusii dan Ficus variegata (INP 166,8% dan 25,5%) merupakan jenis pohon yang dominan di area nonlongsor. Tingkat perdu, jenis yang dominan pada area longsor adalah Calliandra calothyrsus dan Zapoteca tetragona (INP 64,9% dan 43,7%,), sedangkan untuk area nonlongsor adalah Z. tetragona dan Montanoa hibiscifolia (INP 47,1% dan 38,03%). Untuk herba, Elatostema strigosum merupakan jenis yang sangat mendominasi di kedua area (INP 78,1% di area longsor dan 80,4% area nonlongsor). Nilai H" pada area longsor dari tingkat pohon hingga perdu dan herba berkisar antara 1,48-2,1 sedangkan pada area nonlongsor berkisar antara 1,11-1,7. Indeks kemerataan (e") pada kedua area tergolong stabil pada tingkat pohon dan perdu, kecuali herba. Indeks kesamaan (Is) untuk pohon, perdu, dan herba berturut-turut adalah 34,7%; 72,7%; 34,5% yang menandakan komposisi jenis kedua komunitas cenderung berbeda. Kata kunci: Analisis vegetasi, indeks kemerataan, indeks kesamaan, indeks nilai penting, komposisi jenis

Kanitin Changkien

This research aimed to study plant community in the Khao Le Hill, Sadao district, Songkhla province from September 2017 to February 2018. Species diversity was studied by samples, collecting of plants found in the study area. Plant community structure was studied by three study plots (20 x 50 square meters) in the foothills, hillsides, and peaks. Plant species, Girth at breast high (GBH), and plant height (GBH>13 cm) were recorded for analyzing the plant community composition, vertical stratification, GBH classes, and rank-abundance diagram. 86 species, 64 genera, and 39 families were found in the study area. 56 species, 46 genera, and 31 families were found in the study plots. The dominant families are Rubiaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Myrtaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Phyllanthaceae, Melastomaceae, and Fabaceae. The Dominant species are Diospyros venosa Wall. Ex A.DC., Vatica harmandiana Pierre, and Aidia densiflora (Wall.) Masam. The species composition of the area indicates that the plant community is a mixture of tropical and dry forests. In addition, when comparing the characteristics of plant community in each study plot It was found that the vegetation society in the hillside had the highest species diversity and species evenness. The similarity coefficient of plant society between the three study plots was at a moderate level. The Rank – abundance diagram in the three study plots was log-normal distribution. The analysis of the Vertical stratification found that the canopy can be divided into 2-3 layers.

We evaluated the forest structure, pore water salinity, geochemical characteristics, grain-size distribution and sediment accumulation rates (SAR) in 15 mangrove sites along the San Pedro Mezquital River, one of the major sources of fresh water supply to the Marismas Nacionales System. Sediments were sandy-silty with high organic matter content (5.8 ± 1.5% to 23.6 ± 1.7%). The marine (Na, Cl and Br) and terrigenous (Al, Ti, Rb and Zr) elements indicated that sediments were mostly of continental provenance, with small marine contribution. SAR ranged from 0.08 ± 0.01 to 2.29 ± 0.28 cm yr−1. Laguncularia racemosa was the dominant species in the northern sites (between Toluca Lagoon and Mexcaltitan Lagoon), with a mean basal area of 11.1–49.3 m2 ha−1, whereas Rhizophora mangle prevailed in the southern sites, closer to the river mouth (between Boca Camichin and Los Limones River, mean basal area of 2.0–11.0 m2 ha−1). The southern area was characterized by lower forest attributes, and higher pore water salinity and sediment accumulation rates than the northern area. We concluded that mangrove preservation along SPMR requires insuring appropriate fresh water and sediment supply, and the control of organic matter pollution sources.

Lars Chresten Lund-Hansen
Dorte Haubjerg Søgaard
Brian Keith Sorrell
Klaus Martin Meiners

This chapter describes the structure of the book and the diverse significance and importance of sea ice. The first section explains how and why the book is structured following the seasonal events governing the abiotic and biotic parameters in sea ice (1.1). The second section places sea ice into a physical and geopolitical perspective with the new and developing international borders in the Arctic Ocean (1.2). Sea ice ecosystems are then compared to other ecosystems (1.3), followed by a section describing the important and global ecological features of sea ice (1.4).

Pollution of freshwater resources has become one of the most important problems of humanity and as it is known, continuous monitoring of the quality of aquatic ecosystems is one of the best protection techniques. The present study is conducted to assess the environmental status of the Tigris River by applying of diatomic indices (epipelic diatom). Nine diatomic indices were used in this study. Nine indices were used in this study for the period from June 2015 to May 2016. The results revealed that the water quality of the river ranged from moderate to good pollution, oligotrophic to mesotrophic and high diversity of diatoms.

Dog Conch (Strombus turturella) has an essential economic value in Bangka Belitung Islands. Allegedly, the population of Dog Conch is decreasing due to overexploitation. The purpose of this study is to provide information related to the distribution of long frequency, growth pattern, age group, recruitment time estimation and life table of Dog Conch. This research took place on the coast of Tukak Village and Anak Air Island, Bangka Belitung Islands. Samples of Dog Conch were taken using 3x3 m2 square. The shell length of Dog Conch found ranged between 18.18 to 77.49 mm, consisting of three age groups. Asymptotic length value (L∞), growth coefficient (K) and theoretical age on zero-length (t0) were 83.94 mm, 0.79/year and -0.152 sequentially. In the first year, Dog Conch grows to 50.18 mm and slows down when it grows older until it is 13 years old. The proportion of high mortality rate was at 1 to 2 years old and 3 to 4 years old or in adult individuals, while the highest life expectancy rate was in the age group of 0-1-year old or young individuals. It indicated that the high mortality rate was in the group in which people use to consume or sell in the markets Abstrak Siput gonggong (Strombus turturella) memiliki nilai ekonomis penting di Kepulauan Bangka Belitung. Diduga populasi siput gonggong semakin menurun akibat dari eksploitasi berlebihan. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk memberikan informasi terkait distribusi frekuensi panjang, pola pertumbuhan, kelompok umur, estimasi waktu rekruitmen dan tabel hidup siput gonggong. Lokasi penelitian berada di Pesisir Desa Tukak dan Pulau Anak Air, Kepulauan Bangka Belitung.Pengambilan sampel siput gonggong dilakukan dengan menggunakan kuadrat 3x3 m2. Panjang cangkang siput gonggong yang ditemukan berkisar antara 18.18 s.d 77.49 mm yang terdiri atas 3 kelompok umur. Nilai panjang asymptotic (L∞), koefisien pertumbuhan (K) dan umur teoritis ketika panjang sama dengan nol (t0) adalah 83.94 mm, 0.79/tahun dan -0.152 secara berurutan. Pada tahun pertama siput gonggong mengalami pertumbuhan, mencapai 50.18 mm dan melambat ketika umur semakin tua hingga umur 13 tahun. Proporsi laju kematian tinggi terdapat pada umur 1 s.d 2 tahun dan 3 s.d 4 tahun atau pada individu dewasa, sedangkan nilai harapan hidup tertinggi terdapat pada kelompok umur 0-1 tahun atau individu muda. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa kematian tertinggi terdapat pada kelompok umur yang telah diambil oleh masyarakat untuk dikonsumsi dan dijual ke pasaran.

Hopea glabra Wight & Arn. and Hopea utilis (Bedd.) Bole are two little-known highly threatened endemic dipterocarps distributed in evergreen forests of the Western Ghats. Although literature surveys and herbarium records show occurrence of these species in different forest areas of Kerala, the present study could locate Hopea glabra from the Silent Valley National Park and Hopea utilis from Shankili forests in Kulathupuza range, enabling the portrayal of current distribution, basic ecology covering phenology, species association, regeneration and conservation status along with taxonomic notes.

The human influences on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning have deleterious impacts resulting in significant changes in land and resource sustainability. Ecological restoration is the process of overcoming damage caused by humans to the diversity and dynamics of an ecosystem. This can be done more successfully using artificial interventions if they mimic and accelerate the natural processes. A holistic approach is required to mitigate the impact of anthropogenic activities such as mining operations on the natural habitats. Purnapani, a valley situated in Sundargarh district of Odisha had an abandoned open cast limestone and dolomite quarry; without any restoration efforts for the last about 40 years. In order to initiate an effective restoration effort, community analysis was conducted to generate a base line status of the degraded abandoned site. Two sites were selected viz., a 40 years old abandoned overburden dump and a nearby stabilized area as a reference site. The analysis of community structure revealed a general decrease in species richness with an increase in disturbance. Species composition markedly varied among both the sites. Invasive plants like Chromalaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob., Parthenium hysterophorus L. and Ludwigia octovalvis L. sp. were the dominant taxa to invade the over-burdened site. Also, it was evident that Margalef and Menhinick indices along with rank-abundance curve were the useful indicators for detecting and quantifying the extent of damage to the disturbed site.

The study was conducted in the coastal strip of Solouq Plain, one of the most important rangeland areas in the north-eastern part of Libya (Cyrenaica). The area has a long history of overutilisation, which has been perceived to alter rangeland condition. The study aimed to evaluate the current state of the rangeland ecosystem by investigating the characteristics of the vegetation and soil seedbank. Plant species were identified, biomass was calculated, and soil seedbank was estimated. From the vegetation survey, a total of 82 plant species belonging to 64 genera and 21 families were identified, comprised of 48.8% therophytes, 34.2% chamaephytes, 6.1% cryptophytes and hemicryptophytes each, and only 4.8% phanerophytes. The general mean value for biomass was 74.1 g/m-2, the highest mean value was in winter (220.7 g/m-2), and the lowest was in autumn (16.8 g/m-2), with significant difference among seasons (p-value = 0.005). The soil still retains sufficient seed density that can drive the regeneration of native species and play an important role in rehabilitation and sustainable management of the area. The overall mean value for seed density was 6077 seed m-2; The highest density was in summer (15101 seed.m-2), and the lowest was in winter (676 seed.m-2) with significant difference among seasons (p-value = 0.000). It is evident that the vegetation and soil seedbank are typical for arid areas, and the rangelands are in a poor state with the dominant of therophytes and chamaephytes and low portion of palatable species, and improvement may need active rehabilitation intervention. Keywords: anthropogenic factors, biomass, life-form spectra, rangeland degradation.

Youbang Li
Xiaohong Huang
Zhonghao Huang

Climatic factors such as temperature and humidity vary seasonally in primate habitats; thus, behavioral adjustments and microhabitat selection by primate species have been interpreted as behavioral adaptations. François' langur (Trachypithecus francoisi), a native species to southwest China and northern Vietnam, inhabits a limestone habitat with extreme climatic conditions. To understand the potential effects of climatic seasonality on this species, we collected data on the individual behavioral budgets in a T. francoisi group between January and December 2010 in Fusui County, China. Monthly, we performed 5–11 days of observation during this period, using focal animal sampling and continuous recording methods. We also recorded ambient temperature (Ta) and relative humidity (Hr) data at our study site. Results indicated that Ta and Hr were significantly correlated with each other and fluctuated dramatically on a daily, monthly, and seasonal basis. The amount of time spent resting, grooming, basking, and huddling also varied on a daily, monthly, and seasonal basis. The proportion of resting time and total sedentary activity time significantly increased at high and low Tas, respectively. The total sedentary time, resting time, and plant branch use all showed positive significant correlations with Ta. Our results suggest that behavioral adjustment and support use of T. francoisi, at least partly, were related to thermoregulation. T. francoisi minimized thermal stress through behavioral adjustments and support use. It is an adaptive behavior associated with the climatic extremes of limestone habitat. This study can potentially advise conservation management strategies in this specific habitat. Conservation efforts should focus on vegetation restoration in langurs' habitat, including those in the foothills.

In the presence of a predator, prey may alter their temporal activity patterns to reduce the risk of an encounter that may induce injury or death. Prey perception of predation risk and antipredator responses may increase in the presence of dependent offspring. We conducted a camera trap study during summer 2015 in North Carolina and Tennessee, USA to evaluate temporal avoidance of a predator (coyote Canis latrans) by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). We analyzed activity patterns of bucks, does, and nursery groups (i.e., groups that included fawns) relative to those of coyotes to determine the coefficient of overlap (Δ) using a kernel density estimator. We found that bucks and does had similar Δ with coyotes [Δ1 = 0.729 (0.629–0.890) and Δ1 = 0.686 (0.558–0.816, respectively] and exhibited crepuscular activity patterns comparable to those of coyotes. However, nursery groups displayed a dramatically different activity pattern: unimodal activity was concentrated in the middle of the day with little overlap with coyote activity [Δ1 = 0.362 (0.176–0.491)]. Because adult deer are rarely prey for coyotes, whereas fawns are common prey during summer, the shift in activity patterns of nursery groups demonstrates a behavioral shift likely aimed at avoiding coyote predation on fawns.

Larissa Voitenko

The textbook presents modern concepts of chemistry in the context of chemical architecture of the biosphere, theories of life origin on Earth, biogeochemical laws of the biosphere function, biogeochemical zoning and biogeochemical functions of living matter. The basic concepts of biogeochemical cycles are considered. Particular attention is given to risk assessing of anthropogenic impact on biogeochemical processes.

Community characteristics of earthworms were studied in two waste deposit sites - the cow dung heaps and municipal solid wastes - in West Tripura, India. A total of eleven earthworm species belonging to four families and ten genera were collected. Sample based rarefaction curve, revealed almost completeness of inventory in the studied sites with eleven species in cow dung deposit sites and seven species in municipal solid wastes. Cow dung heaps had higher (p<0.05) earthworm density, biomass, diversity index, evenness, richness index and significantly lower index of dominance than the municipal solid wastes. Rank abundance curve showed dominance of Perionyx excavatus in cow dung and Lampito mauritii in the municipal solid wastes. Occurrence of five earthworm species namely, Lampito mauritii, Metaphire houlleti, Perionyx excavatus, Dichogaster bolaui and Metaphire posthuma in both cowdung and municipal solid wastes with wide range of tolerance to environmental parameters (euracious) indicates their usefulness in degradation of organic wastes. According to principal components analysis, soil organic matter, moisture, pH, bulk density, water holding capacity, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium were the most potent regulators of earthworm population density and biomass with highest positive loading scores.

Patricio Valdivieso

Este estudio sintetiza resultados de investigación sobre reducción de riesgos de desastres en términos de infraestructuras críticas y gestión medioambiental en la escala local, subrayando la relevancia de los factores y procesos institucionales. El estudio consiste en un análisis comparado de municipalidades chilenas, revelando las relaciones entre contextos biofísicos, decisiones municipales y factores institucionales que configuran dichas decisiones. Los resultados del análisis demuestran que los factores institucionales se combinan, no operan de forma aislada ni con efectos lineales. Por lo tanto es necesario transitar hacia una perspectiva multisistémica sobre la configuración de condiciones institucionales que modelan las decisiones para producir recomendaciones que apoyen efectivamente los esfuerzos de las municipalidades en la reducción de riesgos de desastres, y en un sentido más amplio en el desarrollo sustentable. Palabras claves: Reducción de Riesgos de Desastres; Desarrollo Sustentable; Municipalidades.

Susmita Debnath
Priyasankar Chaudhuri

Community characteristics of earthworms were studied in two waste deposit sites-the cow dung heaps and municipal solid wastes-in West Tripura, India. A total of eleven earthworm species belonging to four families and ten genera were collected. Sample based rarefaction curve, revealed almost completeness of inventory in the studied sites with eleven species in cow dung deposit sites and seven species in municipal solid wastes. Cow dung heaps had higher (p<0.05) earthworm density, biomass, diversity index, evenness, richness index and significantly lower index of dominance than the municipal solid wastes. Rank abundance curve showed dominance of Perionyx excavatus in cow dung and Lampito mauritii in the municipal solid wastes. Occurrence of five earthworm species namely, Lampito mauritii, Metaphire houlleti, Perionyx excavatus, Dichogaster bolaui and Metaphire posthuma in both cowdung and municipal solid wastes with wide range of tolerance to environmental parameters (euracious) indicates their usefulness in degradation of organic wastes. According to principal components analysis, soil organic matter, moisture, pH, bulk density, water holding capacity, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium were the most potent regulators of earthworm population density and biomass with highest positive loading scores.

Os anfíbios desempenham importantes papéis ecológicos, constituem bons indicadores biológicos e na cadeia trófica atuam como controladores naturais de insetos e outros invertebrados. Os anuros em geral, são considerados oportunistas no habito alimentar, no entanto pouco se conhece da dieta da maioria das espécies. Nesse estudo, apresentamos a dieta de Rhinella paraguayensis, baseado na análise do conteúdo estomacal de 21 indivíduos, procedentes da região da Fazenda Morrinho inserida no Pantanal Mato-Grossense, região de Cáceres. Foram encontrados 484 itens alimentares pertencentes a seis categorias de presas. R. paraguayensis alimentou-se exclusivamente de artrópodes de forma generalizada, sendo que as categorias de presas que apresentaram maior Índice de Valor de Importância foram Formicidae, Coleoptera e Isoptera. Em conformidade com os resultados encontrados pode-se dizer que está espécie, como outros Bufonidae, também são generalistas e oportunistas, representando um importante agente para manutenção do equilíbrio das populações de artrópodes no ambiente.

ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/49178684_Ecology_Theories_and_Applications

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